Learning involves both psychological and physiological processes, yet few empirical studies have examined these dimensions concurrently in educational contexts. Prior research has separately linked motivation- and engagement-related factors (e.g., perceived challenge, competence beliefs, flow) and emotion regulation (ER) to cardiac responses such as heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV). However, little is known about how these factors jointly shape students' cardiac activity during the learning process. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate these associations and to examine whether ER interacts with motivation- and engagement-related factors in predicting HR and HRV.


Thirty-three university students participated in a computer-based programming learning task aimed at developing proficiency in the R programming language. The task consisted of seven phases with specific activities. ER was assessed at the training session. Throughout learning, participants were equipped with Biosignalplux wireless monitoring patches on their hands and body to record cardiac activity and reported perceived challenge, competence beliefs, and flow immediately after each phase. Physiological and self-report data from 231 learning events were analyzed with multilevel modeling.


Students with strong competence beliefs and better ER showed lower HR, whereas higher flow was linked to elevated HR. For HRV, greater levels of competence beliefs and ER corresponded to increased HRV, while higher levels of flow were associated with reduced HRV. Perceived challenge showed no significant effect on either HR or HRV. Furthermore, ER moderated the effect of flow on physiological responses, with greater ER attenuating HR and promoting HRV.


This study provides new insights into the relationships between perceived challenge, competence beliefs, flow, ER, and cardiac responses during learning. Importantly, ER moderated the impact of flow, buffering the increase in HR and supporting HRV. In particular, students with greater emotional regulatory capacity were better able to maintain optimal cardiac responses during higher flow states.