As scams become increasingly sophisticated in the digital age, understanding how individuals balance perceptions of vulnerability with self-efficacy is critical for effective prevention. This mixed-methods study examined perceived susceptibility and perceived ability to resist scams among three groups of individuals (N = 67) in Singapore: those who experienced financial loss due to a scam (once-victim; n = 22), those who suffered repeated losses across multiple scams (multiple-victim; n = 17), and those who encountered scams but successfully avoided them (non-victim; n = 28).


We found that multiple-victims rated themselves significantly more vulnerable to scams than once- and non-victims, who did not differ. Self-efficacy ratings, however, were relatively high across groups, suggesting that vulnerability and efficacy are not opposites but coexisting perceptions. Subsequent in-depth interviews highlighted how scam experiences shaped these perceptions in divergent ways. Multiple-victims often described themselves as vulnerable, citing repeated exposure, emotional triggers, and situational pressures that undermined vigilance. Yet many also detailed strict protective routines, reflecting a paradox of feeling "at risk yet prepared". Once-victims tended to reject the idea of heightened vulnerability, framing past loss as a "lesson learned" that bolstered their self-efficacy. They reported greater confidence in digital practices, secure payment use, and skepticism toward "too good to be true" offers. Non-victims likewise emphasized vigilance, critical thinking, and proactive steps such as blocking unknown numbers or filtering messages. However, they often attributed vulnerability to "others", particularly the elderly or less tech-savvy, distancing themselves from risk while acknowledging that sophisticated scams could still succeed.


Collectively, our findings suggest that vulnerability and self-efficacy interact in complex ways, shaped by lived experience and attribution style. To strengthen long-term scam resistance, it is therefore important to align interventions with diverse mindsets, building resistance without overconfidence.