The black hole illusion (BHI) poses a serious risk to flight safety, particularly during night operations when visual information between the aircraft and runway is insufficient. Current training and selection programs have limited effectiveness, largely due to insufficient research and a shallow understanding of the phenomenon. To address this, we conducted two experiments using a simulated landing task.


In Experiment 1, participants were classified as "experts" or "novices" based on prior training performance. We examined the role of spatial cues (initial approach distance, terrain texture) and temporal cues (perception sequence of airport lighting) in both groups. In Experiment 2, participants operated under different flight rules—visual flight rules (VFR) and instrument flight rules (IFR)—and were required to switch between them during the approach. Flight performance was analyzed across the initial approach phase and the later adjustment phase, with glide path and vertical error serving as indicators of BHI severity.


Results showed that both spatial and temporal cues significantly influenced BHI, while the magnitude of the illusion also depended on flight rules and approach phase. Notably, no "expert-novice effect" was observed, suggesting that training experience alone does not reduce vulnerability. Our findings indicate that pilots may minimize BHI effects by adopting IFR during the initial approach and switching to VFR in the adjustment phase. Moreover, training should be provided to all pilots regardless of experience, as BHI may stem from a systematic human perceptual limitation. Further fundamental research is essential to fully understand and mitigate this risk.